Psychology
Research Methods
Research methods in psychology refer to the systematic approaches used to investigate and understand human behavior and mental processes. These methods include experimental, correlational, and observational techniques, as well as qualitative and quantitative data analysis. Researchers use these methods to gather empirical evidence, test hypotheses, and draw conclusions about psychological phenomena.
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9 Key excerpts on "Research Methods"
eBook - ePub- Ann L. Weber, Joseph Johnson(Authors)
- 2011(Publication Date)
- Collins Reference(Publisher)
CHAPTER 2 Research Methods in Psychology T his chapter presents an overview of the basic methods of research that characterize psychology. It begins with an introduction to the scientific method that guides research in many disciplines. It also introduces key statistical concepts that are used to assess research findings, as well as a discussion of research ethics. As a science, psychology depends on a variety of Research Methods for its accumulated knowledge. To appreciate the findings of psychology, to evaluate their strengths and weaknesses, it is necessary to understand these methods. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD The scientific method is not unique to psychology, but describes a process or cycle that characterizes “good science.” In fact, this method dates back to the work of Aristotle (384–322 B.C.), although these days, it has changed somewhat. By systematically adhering to the scientific method, research on a particular topic is guided by a process of self-correcting theory development, testing, and improvement. Theory Development The scientific method is concerned with theory development, testing, and refinement. A theory is a set of integrated principles and assumptions that organizes data, explains behaviors, and makes testable predictions. Unfortunately, the term “theory” in common usage has taken on a more imprecise meaning that often refers to a guess or hunch. In science, theories are not just educated guesses of what will happen, but systematic formalizations of how and/or why things happen. A conjecture about who committed a crime or what will happen when you microwave some random object, is not a theory. However, a coherent system for explaining differences and relationships between living organisms from today and millions of years ago (for example, evolution) is an established theory
- Nancy Fenton, Jessica Flitter(Authors)
- 2015(Publication Date)
- Research & Education Association(Publisher)
Chapter 4 Research MethodsThe Scientific MethodAs an empirical science, psychology requires verifiable and objective data obtained through the use of the scientific method for the development of knowledge. The steps in the scientific method are outlined in Table 4.1. Psychologists begin the research process by evaluating existing evidence in order to develop a theory , or organized explanation for data, gained through empirical processes. The scientific method also requires the development of a testable and falsifiable prediction explaining the relationship between variables known as a hypothesis .To test the hypothesis, the experimenter must clearly define each of the procedures and variables being studied by creating operational definitions. Operational definitions state as precisely as possible what each variable means, including how it will be measured. The process of operationally defining variables is critical to the research process because it allows for replication , or having future psychologists repeat the exact procedures to obtain the same results. In order to reduce the risk that the results occurred by chance, all conclusions drawn from psychological research must be replicable.Table 4.1. Steps of the Scientific MethodResearch MethodsAs a science, psychology seeks to use empirical methods to observe and measure, predict, explain, and positively influence behavior. The descriptive methods relate to the functions of observation and measurement. Correlational studies make predictions, and experiments are designed to explain cause and effect relationships. When psychologists conduct basic research , the aim is to answer scientific questions and expand the overall information base of psychology. Applied research utilizes descriptive, correlational, and experimental designs to positively influence behavior and solve real-world problems.Population vs. Sample
eBook - ePub- Adrian Furnham, David Oakley(Authors)
- 2013(Publication Date)
- Psychology Press(Publisher)
Chapter 3 Major Research Methods in psychology Psychologists study everything from memory in the octopus to schizophrenic breakdown in people. They study issues as diverse as learning, perception and social behaviour. As such they need a wide range of methods to investigate the issues that fascinate them. How psychologists go about their research is in itself interesting. They have to be imaginative and flexible because of the diversity of things they study and because if people are aware they are being studied their behaviour may not be typical. The research process Scientific knowledge is knowledge obtained by both reason and experience (observation). Logical validity and experimental verification are the criteria employed by scientists to evaluate claims for knowledge. These two criteria are translated into the research activities of scientists through the research process. The research process can be viewed as the overall scheme of scientific activities in which scientists engage in order to produce knowledge; it is the paradigm of scientific inquiry. As illustrated in Figure 3.1, the research process consists of seven principal stages: problem, hypothesis, research design, measurement, data collection, data analysis, and generalization. Each of these stages is interrelated with theory in the sense that it is affected by it as well as affecting it. The most characteristic feature of the research process is its cyclic nature. It often starts with a problem and ends in a tentative generalization based on the experimental evidence. The generalization ending one cycle is the beginning of the next cycle. This cyclic process continues indefinitely, reflecting the progress of a scientific discipline. The research process is also self-correcting. Tentative generalizations to research problems are tested logically and empirically. If these generalizations are rejected, new ones are formulated and tested
eBook - ePub- John DeLamater, Jessica Collett(Authors)
- 2018(Publication Date)
- Routledge(Publisher)
Social PsychologyIntroductionObjectives of Research Research Hypotheses Validity of FindingsCharacteristics of Empirical ResearchSurveys Diary Research Experiments Qualitative Methods Comparison of Research Methods Meta-AnalysisResearch MethodsResearch in Diverse PopulationsPotential Sources of Harm Institutional Safeguards Potential BenefitsEthical Issues in Social Psychological ResearchSummaryCritical Thinking Skill: Understanding the Importance of SamplingLearning Objectives
By the end of this chapter you will be able to:- Explain the four objectives of social psychological research and the nature of research hypotheses.
- Describe steps researchers take to increase the validity of their findings.
- Describe the defining characteristics of quantitative Research Methods such as surveys and experiments, and qualitative methods such as observation and archival research, and be able to compare them.
- Explain the issues that are raised when we undertake research on diverse groups within U.S. society or with members of other cultures.
- Understand the ethical issues that are important in the conduct of social psychological research, and describe the safeguards available to protect the rights of participants.
Introduction
Social psychology relies on empirical research, which is the systematic investigation of observable phenomena (behavior, events) in the world. Researchers try to collect information about behavior and events in an accurate and unbiased form. This information, which may be either quantitative or qualitative, enables social psychologists to describe reality in detail and to develop theories about social behavior.When conducting empirical research, investigators usually employ a methodology
eBook - ePub- S Alexander Haslam, Craig McGarty(Authors)
- 2018(Publication Date)
- SAGE Publications Ltd(Publisher)
3 Research MethodsKey goals for this chapter
- Explain the purpose of psychological measurement and the different forms it can take.
- Outline the major methods used in psychological research.
- Understand the key strengths and weaknesses of different Research Methods.
In the previous chapter, we asked why researchers do research in psychology and what they are looking for when they do. If a researcher has decided to go ahead and conduct research, the next obvious question is ‘What different research strategies are available?’.Our response to this question starts with an examination of the things that psychologists measure and of the basic types of psychological measurement. We then look in turn at the four major Research Methods that psychologists employ in order to conduct research: (a) experimental, (b) quasi-experimental, (c) survey and (d) case study. The strengths and limitations of each of these methods are considered in separate sections in which we also discuss the basis on which researchers choose among them. This choice can be difficult to make and quite controversial. At the same time, as we shall see, it is often affected by factors over which the researcher has limited control.Psychological measurement
In the previous chapter we noted that one of the things that differentiates psychology from other sciences is the fact that the things in which psychologists are typically interested – mental states and processes – can never be directly observed or measured. You cannot touch or see a mood, a thought, a disposition, a memory or an attitude. Instead, you can only observe things that are associated with
eBook - ePub- Matt Jarvis(Author)
- 2006(Publication Date)
- Routledge(Publisher)
10 Research Methods in sport psychology
By the end of this chapter, you should able to:Learning objectives- understand the distinction between quantitative and qualitative research
- describe the experimental method and discuss its use in sport psychology research
- describe the correlational method and discuss its use in sport psychology
- describe survey methods, including questionnaires, interviews and focus groups, and discuss their use in sport psychology
- outline the case study method and discuss its use in sport psychology
- discuss the use of archived data in sport psychology research
- critically discuss the usefulness of systematic review and meta-analysis as ways of drawing conclusions from multiple studies.
This chapter is devoted to understanding the sort of research conducted in sport psychology. There are two purposes of this. First, it should give you a slightly deeper understanding of the research you will come across in this and other books whilst studying sport psychology. For example, you might wish to understand better why a study was done the way it was, or what the strengths and limitations are of the different Research Methods. Second, it should help you begin to plan your own research. There is no attempt to include everything you might ever want to know about carrying out research; that would be a book in itself, and there are several good books of that sort. However, it should give you a sound background in some basic principles.Quantitative and qualitative research
Hayes (2000) defines quantitative methods as those ‘which involve the manipulation of numerical data’ (p 239). In other words, the researchers are dealing with information in the form of numbers. Qualitative approaches, on the other hand, attempt to draw out the meanings
- Poul Rohleder(Author)
- 2012(Publication Date)
- SAGE Publications Ltd(Publisher)
There has been an increased diversity in the discipline of health psychology, with an increase in the use of diverse Research Methods, including qualitative Research Methods to explore issues of health and ill-health (Chamberlain & Murray, 2008). Qualitative methods have been found useful to explore and understand peoples’ experiences of illness and health, capturing the complexity of that experience and the complexities related to health care and promotion. Qualitative Research Methods have also been found to be a useful tool for advocating social change related to health and illness. Qualitative Research Methods have been less used in clinical psychology. Research in clinical psychology has been influenced by a medical approach, where randomized controlled trials and other quantitative research has been the preferred method for informing evidence-based practice. However, there has been a gradual increase in qualitative research in clinical psychology, particularly in the UK (as compared to the USA) (Harper, 2008). Qualitative methods have been found to be useful in understanding phenomena such as service user experiences, which traditionally was only taken into account when collecting a case history and investigating accounts of symptoms and their history. Increasingly, the experience of what it means and feels like to have mental health difficulties, or the experience of interactions with mental health services, has become an important focus of research.There are a number of qualitative Research Methods that are used in the social sciences and in psychology, and it is beyond the scope of this chapter to explore all or most of these in depth. Several books are available that detail the different methods used in qualitative research. Some recommended texts are listed at the end of this chapter. Here, I shall briefly outline some of the more commonly used methods used in health and clinical psychology, which are useful in taking a more critical approach to understanding issues in health and ill-health.DIFFERENT METHODS IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
8.2 A brief description of some of these methods and examples of their use in clinical and health psychology now follows. I have presented them, more or less, in terms of their historical inclusion in clinical and health psychology.8.2.1 PARTICIPATORY ACTION RESEARCH
Participatory action research is more a research approach than a specific method. It is normally included as a qualitative research method, in that it is concerned with capturing multiple perspectives and experience, as per the principles of social constructionism. Participatory action research aims to generate knowledge and practical solutions to problems affecting individuals and communities, through a process of participation and reflection with multiple partners (Kagan, Burton, & Siddiquee, 2008). The people who would typically be considered the ‘subjects’ of research actively participate in the generation of knowledge and seeking of practical solutions. The aim is to bring about social change, thus bringing together both the theoretical and the practical, and focuses on the individual as well as the social (be it, for example, the group, the community or the organization). In this sense, action research has as its primary purpose the production of “practical knowledge that is useful to people in the everyday conduct of their lives” (Reason & Bradbury, 2008: 4).
eBook - ePub- Denis Mareschal, Brian Butterworth, Andy Tolmie(Authors)
- 2013(Publication Date)
- Wiley-Blackwell(Publisher)
Chapter 5Research Methods in Educational Psychology
Andy TolmieDifferent Types of Approach to Educational ResearchTaken generically, mainstream educational research spans an extremely wide range of concerns, including school organization and effectiveness, pedagogy and classroom processes, educational technology and other forms of support for learning, special and inclusive education, and a variety of cross-cutting curricular specializations, such as science, mathematics, and literacy education. Given the importance attached to education and over a century’s history of active investigation of factors affecting educational outcomes, this diversity is unsurprising, though challenging for any attempt to summarize the Research Methods that have been employed.However, there is a more fundamental distinction between what may be termed “pure” educational research and psychological research in education. The former tends to be characterized by a concern with specific educational systems and structures, and the outcomes these produce. The latter is typically much less concerned with specific systems and contexts, being driven instead by a focus on the processes by which learning occurs, the factors that shape these processes, and how an understanding of both might be deployed within educational settings. Much research of this kind does not even take place within formal educational contexts, for instance making use of out-of-class or laboratory settings (e.g., Huss, Verney, Fosker, Mead, & Goswami, 2011; Philips & Tolmie, 2007), or concentrating on informal learning that takes place outside of school (e.g., Pino-Pasternak, Whitebread, & Tolmie, 2010).There is an inherently greater affinity between the methods and theoretical concerns of the neuroscience of learning and educational psychology: both are directed at understanding the basic processes of learning and the factors facilitating or constraining these. If educational neuroscience seeks to find points of convergence between the different research traditions, these are more likely to be found here than between neuroscience and pure educational research, at least at this point in time. This chapter will consequently focus predominantly on the methodologies employed within educational psychology. The next section deals with the issue of measurement, and the strategies that have evolved over time for capturing learning processes. The following section moves on to consider how these measurement techniques are deployed within different types of study design, including school-based interventions. Throughout the chapter a central goal will be to highlight the specific constraints that limit potential approaches to research in educational psychology as compared to the work in experimental cognitive neuroscience that features in other chapters.
eBook - ePub- Warren Davies(Author)
- 2013(Publication Date)
- Psychology Press(Publisher)
So, the hypothesis is the thing that is being predicted. In science, there is always one or more specific hypothesis. Studies are generally not conducted without making a prediction, just to ‘see what happens,’ with the exception of exploratory research. This is because, if you go out and collect a load of data, there are myriad ways you can cut it and slice it to make one point or another. Seriously, in any worthless data set you can probably find some fluke finding or other to report. If we built theories on results like this, they would be flimsy and poor predictors of the real world. Instead, we put our theories on the line – expose them to potential refutation. If they fail to be refuted over and over, we assume they are strong theories.Because of this, pretty much all the statistical analyses that are done in science revolve around the fact that a hypothesis has been drawn up and is being tested. We'll come back to this point on page 29 when we talk about the null hypothesis.Test
After we've examined or created a theory and drawn up a hypothesis, the next step in the scientific method is to design and carry out a study that will put our hypothesis to the test. As you'll see, this is not always as easy as it seems.First of all let's briefly look at the two broad types of research methodologies that psychologists use when designing studies – quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative methodologies include anything that involves numbers. How much? How many? Anything that is measured by being quantified or categorized, is quantitative. Pretty simple. Qualitative methodologies cover any data in word form that isn't categorized, such as labels, descriptions, narratives, interview transcripts or diary entries.Since psychology is very heavily biased towards quantitative methods, many students are relieved when they learn about qualitative methods, seeing them as a way to get out of statistics. This is flawed reasoning, because it is still necessary to understand statistical data to be able to read scientific papers properly. However, some people simply do have a greater affinity towards working with qualitative methods, which might involve reading through interview transcripts over and over to look for themes and patterns in what people have said (by the way, if you ever have to transcribe a number of interviews, find a transcription service online – it will save you hours of time and some are very cheap. If you can't find one, hire a freelancer at elance.com or fiverr.com
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